Brown v. Board of Education
-1954-lawsuit brought on behalf of linda brown by the NAACP
-Supreme court overturned the separate but equal standard for education, which had stood since Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896
-declared that separate but equal schools for black children violated the constitution
-9-0 decision
What happened after the court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education?
-didn't immediately solve segregation problem-some southern sates payed the tuition of white children to go to private schools, which blacks couldn't afford, so there were still segregated schools
-some states closed public schools instead of integrating them
What happened in Little Rock, Arkansas?
1957-LR School board agreed to integrate thier schools
-to be reelected, Orville Faubus, governor of Arkansas, called in the state's national guard to keep blacks from enrolling in a Little Rock HS
-Eisenhower intervened 1 month later when courts forced him to enforce the law- sent paratroopers to protect the balck students and subdue the mobs so the students could go to school
-arkansas closed all public HS in LR for 2 years
What happened at the University of Mississippi?
-In september 1962, a federal court ordered UM to accept James Meredith (28 yr old Air Force veteran)
-Gov. Ross Barnett said he would never allow the school to become integrated
-Meredith enrolled in October, accompanied by federal officials, and graduated the following August
What did James Meredith begin in 1966?
A march agaisnt fear- from Memphis TN to Jackson MI
Meredith was shot soon after he began the march, but civil rights leaders came to continue the march
Who was Medger Evers?
What happened to him?
Mississippi's NAACP director; most visible civil rights leader in Mississippi because of his attempts to integrate the public education institutions
was shot in 1963 by an anti-integrationist (Byron dela Beckwith) and died one hour later, then buried in Arlington National Cemetery
Who was Byron dela Beckwith?
Police suspected him of killing Medger Evers, but Beckwith denied shooting Evers
Beckwith had the support of Mississippi's prominent citizens as well as gov. Ross Barnett
Beckwith was set free (after being declared innocent by an all-white jury)
What did Myrlie Evers do after her husband's death?
Continued to search for evidence against Beckwith
in 1990, Beckwith was indicted for the murder and went to trial in 1994
Beckwith was convicted and sentenced to life in prison, died in 2001
Martin Luther King Jr. (his philosophy and education and family)
-encouraged people to organize peaceful protests (inspired by Thoreau and Gandhi)
-born in 1929 in Atlanta, attended Atlanta public schools, graduated from Morehouse College, went to crozer theological seminary, received doctorate in theology from Boston University
(very articulate and well spoken)
-both his father and grandfather were ministers
SCLC
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
-made up of 60 balck ministers who gathered in Atlanta to fight for civil rights
-MLK jr. was the president
March on Selma
King announced a march from Selma, AL to Montgomery to show blacks' determination to vote
Gov. George Wallace refused to allow the march and 500 participants were beaten by state troopers
the march continued and Selma's blacks were joined by blacks and whites from other states
only 300 were allowed to make the march, but they were joined by over 25,000 in Mont. for the march to the capital to petition Gov. Wallace
Montgomery Bus boycott
Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger (which was required according to Jim Crow Laws)
blacks staged a 1 year bus boycott- led by King (rosa's minister), Ralph Abernathy (black minister) and AL's state chairman of the NAACP
results of the bus boycott
over 1/2 of bus riders were black, and now they walked or carpooled (occassionally helped by whites who needed thier workers and would help drive them)
Montgomery lifted the segregation law on buses, and the boycott ended
many bus drivers were now black
Greensboro Sit-in
1960-black college students tried King's peaceful protest by organizing a sit-in at a local woolworth's lunch counter that was for whites only
-inspired a sit-in movement that swept across the nation in response to the sit-in in greensboro and the harrassment the black students faced
-the students would encourage each other "if you don't have the courage, i'll lend you some"
CORE
Congress of Racial Equality
-a civil rights group formed in 1942 and committed to nonviolent civil disobedience
-organized the freedom riders movement- freedom riders staged sit-ins on buses (where they sat in the white sections) -(idea for freedom rides came from James Farmer who borrowed the idea from the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation)
SNCC
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
-formed by Ella Baker (a SCLC leader)
-laid the foundation in voter registration and antisegregationist activism
-black civil rights organization founded in 1960
-many younder activists and college studnets involved
Black Panthers
-political and social movement among black Americans
-believed that racism was an inherent part of the U.S. capitalist society and were militant, self-styled revolutionaries for Black Power
-founded in Oakland CA in 1966- by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton
-emphasized black economic and political power
-Seale and Newton created the panthers and began to carry firearms
-recruited Eldridge cleaver as chief publicist
-saw African American ghettos as interal colonies in need of slef-determination
The great society
lyndon Johnson's reform program that focused on poverty, ecudation, and civil rights
Accomplishments:
-johnson succeeded in passing the civil rights act of 1964
-congress enacted Medicare, a health insurance program for the elderly
-congress enacted Medicaid, health insurance assisstance for the poor
-a new housing act that provided rent supplements for the poor
-federal assisstance to artists and scholars
-transportation bills that set federal safety standards for cars and tires
-provided aid for elementary and secondary schooling, game money to states based on the number of thier children from low-income families
some of his programs went underfunded, but the GS still achieved reductions in poverty (black family income rose)
Civil Rights Act of 1964
-federal legislation that outlawed discrimination in public accomodations and employment based on race, skin color, sex, religion, or national origin
-increased federal gov'ts power to ban discrimination
-prohibited segregation in public accommodations (hotels, restaurants, gas stations, theaters and parks)
blacks still didn't have the right to vote
introduced by kennedy, passed by Johnson
EEOC
Equal Employment Opportunitiy commission
-created under the civil rights act of 1964
-can bring suit on behalf of alleged victims of discrimination
-US federal agency to end employment discrimination in US
Voting Rights Act
-signed by Johnson
-law outlawed literacy tests and provided federal voting registrars in certain states
-1975-Congress extended coverage to hispanic voters in the southwest
blacks in government
-by 1992-Virginia had a black governor, nearly every southern state had elected black representatives to congress
thousands of balcka nd latino candidates won local offices
Economic Opportunity Act
-signed by Johnson, central to J's Great societyu and its war on poverty
-included several social programs to promote the health, education and general welfare of the poor
War on Poverty
part of Johnson's Great society Agenda
core of Johnson's program was the office of econoic opportunity: -opperated the Job Corps for school drop outs,
-the nieghborhood youth Corps for unemployed teens,
-the Head start program to prepare poor children for school
-VISTA-Volunteers in service to america- a domestic peace corps
OEO's biggest effort went to Community Action agencies- which provided health and educational servieces
Gideon v. Wainwright
G v. W- one of a series of Supreme Court decisions which confirmed the right of defendants to counsel in criminal proceedings druing trial, on appeal, and during police interrogation
-1961-Clarence Earl Gideon had been charged iwth burglary for breaking into a pool hall in FL and taking money from vending machines
-since Gideon had not committed a capital offense, therefore the State of FL couldn't provide him with a lawyer for his defense
-Gideon had to act as his own counsel- found guilty and was sentenced to five years in the state pen.
-Gideon appealed to the Supreme Court from his prison cell, stating that he had been denied counsel, which violated his fourteenth amendment rights
-Gideon was provided with a lawyer (Abe Fortas) and was retried and acquited
Miranda v. Arizona
the supreme court held that criminal suspects must be informed of thier rights to consult with an attorney and of thier right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by the police
-1963-Ernesto Miranda was arrested for robbery, kidnapping and rape; he was interrogated by police and he confessed
-at his trial, prosecuters offered only his confession as evidence
-Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping-sentenced to 20-30 yrs. imprisonment on each charge
miranda's conviction was overturned on the grounds that no confession could be admissible under the 5th amendment self-incrimination clause and the 6th amendment right to an attorney
who was escobedo?
convicted of murder, case retried, murder charge overturned, later convicted of rape
Ku Klux Klan
-all over south-KKK and other racist groups bombed black churches and homes of civil rights activists
-revived in 1960s- several women were now active in it
-very violent, some members were convicted, but not until 1990s, not as big a movement as during reconstruciton (only 2000 members)
Nation of Islam
-religious movement among black muslims- emphasizes self-suffiency, self-help and separation from white society
-organized in 1931 by elijah muhammad- combined a version of Islam with radical separation
-called for self-discipline, support of black institutions and businesses and total rejection of white america
-Nation of Islam- appealed to blacks who saw no future in integration
Malcolm X
-X emerged as a leading Black Muslim- street criminal until he converted to islam in prison
-emphasized African cultural heritage and economic self-help
-X encouraged blacks to claim thier rights by any means necessary
-X did not follow civil disobedience (like SNCC), he was much more violent
-X was assassinate by rivals within the movement in Feb. 1965
the new left
-new movement that emerged, focused on social activism, not labor activism
-made up of progressive groups on college campuses- like the students for a democratic Society
-ideals included elimination of poverty and racism and an end to Cold War politics
-thier protests grew into the free speech movement
-most new left groups were male dominant, insensitive to the cause of women's rights
Port Huron Statment
the new left's platform- written by Tom Hayden
feminist movement
-women gon tired of being treated as 2nd class within the liberation movements
-started thier own groups to fight against discrimination in hiring, pay, and college admissions and financial aid
-targeted unequal opportunity in job market- men were paid more for the same job; companies hired men over more qualified women because the men "needed the job", the women just wanted one
-women battled for equal pay and equal qualifications and resposibilities
"The feminine Mystique"
-written by Betty Freidan
-book that openly challenged people's assumptions about women's place in society
NOW
National Organization for Women
-formed 1966 to fight for legislative changes (like the ERA)
-held strikes/protests for equal employment and education
ERA
Equal Rights Amendment
-"equal rights should not be denied or abridged by the US or any state on account of sex"
-congress set a time limit for its ratification-20 states ratified it within a few months, 12 other states ratified it after extensive legislative battles
-the time limit (though extended) expired in 1982 before it could be ratified by the last 3 states and it never passed
Roe v. Wade
-feminists had long been fighting for reproductive rights, which reached the supreme court in 1972
-Supreme court voted 5-4- struck down state laws that forbade abortion in the first trimester
-justices decided that the 14th amendment includes a woman's right to privacy-blocking states from interfering iwth a woman's right to terminate a pregnancy
-Roe was a feminist, later confessed that she was never actually raped-(the whole prochoice movement is based on a lie) 20 yrs after the trial, she decided that abortion IS wrong and tried to take the case back to the supreme court to change it (not successful)
Webster v. Reproductive health services
court upheld congressional limitations on the use of federal funds for abortion
Griswald v. CT
dealt with access to information about birth control
AIM
American Indian Movement- founded by Dennis Banks, Clyde Bellacort, and George Mitchell
-created to increase economic opportunity and stop police mistreatement
-sized the abandoned Alcatraz island as a cultural and educational center until 1971
-led the trail of broken treaties- across the country to occupy the Bureau of Indian Affairs in DC which ended after a week (but succeeded in publicizing their movement
-took over the village of Wounded Knee where the US army had killed 300 indians; held out for 70 days and then left peacefully
UFW
United Farm Workers
-organized by Cesar Chavez-to help Mexican American farm/field workers in CA
-demanded better wages, safer worker conditions (like less exposure to pesticides)
-successful in organizing national boycotts against grapes, lettuce, certain brands of wine- thier biggest success was the grape boycott in 1965
-thier success was undermined by the Teamsters Union (a rival organization)
Cesar Chavez
founder of the UFW
-committed to nonviolent action for social justice and to the labor movement
-the best known latino activist
Delores Huerta
Vice president of the UFW
-spoke for the special needs of women who labored in the fields
Kennedy and Nixon
Kennedy won the debate because of TV- he had a fresh, clean apperance
kennedy narrowly won by 100,000 votes
kennedy's good looks, youth, and wit earned him the adoration of millions
the new frontier
Kennedy's domestic program-promised to fight to conquer racism, poverty, etc
K challenged the american people to become involved-to recognize thier status as a world power
"ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country"
promised programs that would:
-increase aid to elderly
-combat racism
-improve education
-assist farmers facing business failure
-halt the recession of the american economy
Kennedy's domestic policies
-tax reform
-raised minimum wage by $.10
-developed peace corps
-made Alliance for progress
-laid groundwork for civil rights act of 1964 (which was passed under Johnson)
-enforced desegregation at University of Mississipp in 1962 (didn't embrace civil rights movement until late in his presidency)
-success in the space program
-little success in other programs because of his lack to rally congress behind his domestic agenda (much like FDR's new deal which began to falter in its support, esp. after a few years)
Kennedy's assassination
-Nov 22, 1963- Kennedy was visiting Dallas TX to patch up fueds with TX democrats
-K insisted on riding in a convertible, instead of a bullet-proof car
-the president's motorcade took him near the TX school Book Depository building, where Lee Harvey oswald was stationed in a 6th floor window
-when kennedy's car came into view, Oswald fired 3 shots that killed the president and woulded TX Gov. John Connally
-Kennedy taken to ER, Dallas police arrested Oswald
-Johnson took the oath of office on Air Force 1
Lee Harvey oswald
-2 days after killing kennedy, as Oswald was being led led to a courtroom in TX, nightclub owner Jack Ruby killed Oswald with a handgun (in front of TV cameras) (ruby confessed that he believed he was doing american a favor)
-Oswald was a 24 year old social misfit- had served in marines,
-probably not the only person involved in kennedy's assassination, but the only one convicted or investigated
Warren Commission
-appointed to investigate the assassination-led by chief justice Earl Warren
-did a very hasty job and hurried to finish before the 1964 election, and sought to assure that kennedy hadn't been killed as part of a communist plot (leading to many suspicions that that WAS the case)
-WC calmed immediate fears, but left several loose ends that fueled conspiracy theories (though none were ever proven)
House-led committee on assassinations
decided that Oswald did committ the murder, but that there were other conspirators behind it
Nixon's Domestic Policies
-during his administration the economy worsened, going through stagflation (combined recession and inflation)
-tried to combat economic woes with interventionist measures, including a price and wage freeze, and increased federal spending (which did not produce thier intended results)
-urban crime levels rose, many fled to the tranquility of the suburbs
Election of 1968
Richard nixon- republican cand. (won)
AL gov. George Wallace- ran a segregationist 3rd party campaign (popular in the South
robert kennedy was the original democratic candidate (the frontrunner in the election) but after his assassination:
Hubert Humphrey- democrat (former VP under johnson)
MLK jr Assasssinated
-early april, 1968-a white assassin (james earl ray- an ex-convict) killed MLK in memphis as he stood on a motel balcony
-the murder ignited black riots in over 150 towns/cities
-outraged mobs committed arson, looting and murder
Robert Kennedy's assassination
june 1968- Bobby kennedy, a frontrunner for dem. nomination, was assassinated in a Los Angelos hotel by Sirhan Sirhan (a jordanian immigrant)
K was an aggressive advocate for the poor and a harsh critic of Vietnam war
Nixon Doctrine
announced that the US would withdraw from many of its overseas troop committments, instead relying on alliances with local governments to check the spread of communism
would only help allies if there was a threat of nuclear weapons (in contrast to marshall doctrine)
Nixon Doctrine
announced that the US would withdraw from many of its overseas troop committments, instead relying on alliances with local governments to check the spread of communism
would only help allies if there was a threat of nuclear weapons (in contrast to marshall doctrine)
Nixon Doctrine
announced that the US would withdraw from many of its overseas troop committments, instead relying on alliances with local governments to check the spread of communism
would only help allies if there was a threat of nuclear weapons (in contrast to marshall doctrine)
Nixon Doctrine
announced that the US would withdraw from many of its overseas troop committments, instead relying on alliances with local governments to check the spread of communism
would only help allies if there was a threat of nuclear weapons (in contrast to marshall doctrine)
detente
lessening of tensions
Henry kissinger
Nixon's secretary of state
the pentagon papers
summer 1971-2 newspapers published the pentagon papers- a top secret gov't study of the history of US involvement in Vietnam (from WW2-1968)-documented military miscalculations and lies the gov't had told the public
the papers said nothing about Nixon's administration, but he fought to prevent their publication
the plumbers
to prevent any futher leaks of classified documents, Nixon put together a team of investigators
-burglarized a psychiatrist's office to gather incriminating info on the gov't official who had given the pentagon papers to the press
-during 1972 elections, the plumbers sabotaged the campaigns of several democratic hopefuls and botched a burglary at the democratic headquarters at the watergate hotel
watergate scandal
-when the plumbers were arrested at watergate, the white house began an effort to cover up the scandal
-information was slowly revealed that incriminated the president's closest advisors
-tapes that nixon had secretly made of every conversation in the white house (including coversations about watergate) were discovered
-a legal battle to gain possession of the tapes raged, the senate demanding them and Nixon claiming executive priviledge and not giving them up
Nixon's resignation
-more incriminating evidence turned up, and more of nixon's associates were jailed,
-the president lost the battle over the tapes (Supreme court (US v. Nixon) ordered he turn them over to the senate- but 18 minutes of silence were mysteriously discovered where there should have been evidence of Nixon's involvement in the scandal)
rather than face impeachment procedings, Nixon resigned in August, 1974
Gerald Ford
Nixon's VP who took the office of president after nixon's resignation
granted nixon a presidential pardon- preventing Nixon from ever facing trial
Ford had been appointed by Nixon to replace Spiro Agnew (who had resigned after charges of bibery and tax evasion)
first president who was never actually elected by the people
Angela Davis
Black Communist college professor affiliated with the Black Panthers, she was accused of having been involved in a murderous jail-break attempt by that organization.
